Articles | Volume 15, issue 11
https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-15-3591-2018
© Author(s) 2018. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-15-3591-2018
© Author(s) 2018. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
15 Jun 2018
Research article |
| 15 Jun 2018
| 15 Jun 2018
Rapid mineralization of biogenic volatile organic compounds in temperate and Arctic soils
Department of
Geochemistry, Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland (GEUS), Øster Voldgade 10, 1350 Copenhagen K, Denmark
Department of Geosciences and Natural
Resource Management, Center for Permafrost (CENPERM), University of Copenhagen, Øster Voldgade 10, 1350
Copenhagen K, Denmark
Magnus Kramshøj
Department of
Geochemistry, Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland (GEUS), Øster Voldgade 10, 1350 Copenhagen K, Denmark
Department of Geosciences and Natural
Resource Management, Center for Permafrost (CENPERM), University of Copenhagen, Øster Voldgade 10, 1350
Copenhagen K, Denmark
Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken
15, 2100 Copenhagen E, Denmark
Riikka Rinnan
Department of Geosciences and Natural
Resource Management, Center for Permafrost (CENPERM), University of Copenhagen, Øster Voldgade 10, 1350
Copenhagen K, Denmark
Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken
15, 2100 Copenhagen E, Denmark
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Cole G. Brachmann, Tage Vowles, Riikka Rinnan, Mats P. Björkman, Anna Ekberg, and Robert G. Björk
Biogeosciences, 20, 4069–4086, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-4069-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-4069-2023, 2023
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Herbivores change plant communities through grazing, altering the amount of CO2 and plant-specific chemicals (termed VOCs) emitted. We tested this effect by excluding herbivores and studying the CO2 and VOC emissions. Herbivores reduced CO2 emissions from a meadow community and altered VOC composition; however, community type had the strongest effect on the amount of CO2 and VOCs released. Herbivores can mediate greenhouse gas emissions, but the effect is marginal and community dependent.
Roger Seco, Thomas Holst, Mikkel Sillesen Matzen, Andreas Westergaard-Nielsen, Tao Li, Tihomir Simin, Joachim Jansen, Patrick Crill, Thomas Friborg, Janne Rinne, and Riikka Rinnan
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 20, 13399–13416, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-13399-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-13399-2020, 2020
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Northern ecosystems exchange climate-relevant trace gases with the atmosphere, including volatile organic compounds (VOCs). We measured VOC fluxes from a subarctic permafrost-free fen and its adjacent lake in northern Sweden. The graminoid-dominated fen emitted mainly isoprene during the peak of the growing season, with a pronounced response to increasing temperatures stronger than assumed by biogenic emission models. The lake was a sink of acetone and acetaldehyde during both periods measured.
Ylva van Meeningen, Guy Schurgers, Riikka Rinnan, and Thomas Holst
Biogeosciences, 14, 4045–4060, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-14-4045-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-14-4045-2017, 2017
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Leaf scale measurements have been performed on English oak, European beech and Norway spruce at a field site in Denmark to study the release of volatile compounds in response to a change in light. Whilst some compounds, like isoprene and sabinene, increased with increasing light, other compounds, like camphene, showed no light response for most of the trees. This can help to increase our knowledge of how species and compounds respond to light and to possibly improve how they can be modeled.
Jing Tang, Guy Schurgers, Hanna Valolahti, Patrick Faubert, Päivi Tiiva, Anders Michelsen, and Riikka Rinnan
Biogeosciences, 13, 6651–6667, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-13-6651-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-13-6651-2016, 2016
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Arctic is warming at twice the global average speed and the warming-induced increases in biogenic volatile organic compound (BVOC) emissions from Arctic plants are expected to be drastic. This modelling study aims to investigate BVOC emission responses to warming. The results show that 2 °C summer warming can increase annual emissions by 56 % and the short-term warming responses are strongly impacted by leaf temperature, while the long-time responses are interacted with vegetation changes.
Ylva van Meeningen, Guy Schurgers, Riikka Rinnan, and Thomas Holst
Biogeosciences, 13, 6067–6080, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-13-6067-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-13-6067-2016, 2016
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English oak and European beech are common European trees known to release volatile compounds such as isoprene and monoterpenes. By doing leaf chamber measurements at three sites in Europe, the aim was to study how the emission differed for cloned trees growing at different sites. The measured emission rates from clones varied between sites, but the relative compound contribution was stable both within and between sites. This can help to increase our knowledge of emission pattern variability.
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Biogeosciences, 18, 5203–5222, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-18-5203-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-18-5203-2021, 2021
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Aditi Sengupta, Sarah J. Fansler, Rosalie K. Chu, Robert E. Danczak, Vanessa A. Garayburu-Caruso, Lupita Renteria, Hyun-Seob Song, Jason Toyoda, Jacqueline Hager, and James C. Stegen
Biogeosciences, 18, 4773–4789, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-18-4773-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-18-4773-2021, 2021
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Cora Hörstmann, Eric J. Raes, Pier Luigi Buttigieg, Claire Lo Monaco, Uwe John, and Anya M. Waite
Biogeosciences, 18, 3733–3749, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-18-3733-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-18-3733-2021, 2021
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Nimrod Wieler, Tali Erickson Gini, Osnat Gillor, and Roey Angel
Biogeosciences, 18, 3331–3342, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-18-3331-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-18-3331-2021, 2021
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Michal Elul, Maxim Rubin-Blum, Zeev Ronen, Itay Bar-Or, Werner Eckert, and Orit Sivan
Biogeosciences, 18, 2091–2106, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-18-2091-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-18-2091-2021, 2021
Mindaugas Zilius, Irma Vybernaite-Lubiene, Diana Vaiciute, Donata Overlingė, Evelina Grinienė, Anastasija Zaiko, Stefano Bonaglia, Iris Liskow, Maren Voss, Agneta Andersson, Sonia Brugel, Tobia Politi, and Paul A. Bukaveckas
Biogeosciences, 18, 1857–1871, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-18-1857-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-18-1857-2021, 2021
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Saly Jaber, Muriel Joly, Maxence Brissy, Martin Leremboure, Amina Khaled, Barbara Ervens, and Anne-Marie Delort
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Our study is of interest to atmospheric scientists and environmental microbiologists, as we show that clouds can be considered a medium where bacteria efficiently degrade and transform amino acids, in competition with chemical processes. As current atmospheric multiphase models are restricted to chemical degradation of organic compounds, our conclusions motivate further model development.
Kahina Djaoudi, France Van Wambeke, Aude Barani, Nagib Bhairy, Servanne Chevaillier, Karine Desboeufs, Sandra Nunige, Mohamed Labiadh, Thierry Henry des Tureaux, Dominique Lefèvre, Amel Nouara, Christos Panagiotopoulos, Marc Tedetti, and Elvira Pulido-Villena
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Romie Tignat-Perrier, Aurélien Dommergue, Alban Thollot, Olivier Magand, Timothy M. Vogel, and Catherine Larose
Biogeosciences, 17, 6081–6095, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-6081-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-6081-2020, 2020
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Yanhong Lu, Shunyan Cheung, Ling Chen, Shuh-Ji Kao, Xiaomin Xia, Jianping Gan, Minhan Dai, and Hongbin Liu
Biogeosciences, 17, 6017–6032, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-6017-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-6017-2020, 2020
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Through a comprehensive investigation, we observed differential niche partitioning among diverse ammonia-oxidizing archaea (AOA) sublineages in a typical subtropical estuary. Distinct AOA communities observed at DNA and RNA levels suggested that a strong divergence in ammonia-oxidizing activity among different AOA groups occurs. Our result highlights the importance of identifying major ammonia oxidizers at RNA level in future studies.
Anna-Neva Visser, Scott D. Wankel, Pascal A. Niklaus, James M. Byrne, Andreas A. Kappler, and Moritz F. Lehmann
Biogeosciences, 17, 4355–4374, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-4355-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-4355-2020, 2020
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This study focuses on the chemical reaction between Fe(II) and nitrite, which has been reported to produce high levels of the greenhouse gas N2O. We investigated the extent to which dead biomass and Fe(II) minerals might enhance this reaction. Here, nitrite reduction was highest when both additives were present but less pronounced if only Fe(II) minerals were added. Both reaction systems show distinct differences, rather low N2O levels, and indicated the abiotic production of N2.
Lisa Tanet, Séverine Martini, Laurie Casalot, and Christian Tamburini
Biogeosciences, 17, 3757–3778, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-3757-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-3757-2020, 2020
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Bioluminescent bacteria, the most abundant light-emitting organisms in the ocean, can be free-living, be symbiotic or colonize organic particles. This review suggests that they act as a visual target and may indirectly influence the sequestration of biogenic carbon in oceans by increasing the attraction rate for consumers. We summarize the instrumentation available to quantify this impact in future studies and propose synthetic figures integrating these ecological and biogeochemical concepts.
Michael Lintner, Bianca Biedrawa, Julia Wukovits, Wolfgang Wanek, and Petra Heinz
Biogeosciences, 17, 3723–3732, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-3723-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-3723-2020, 2020
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Foraminifera are unicellular marine organisms that play an important role in the marine element cycle. Changes of environmental parameters such as salinity or temperature have a significant impact on the faunal assemblages. Our experiments show that changing salinity in the German Wadden Sea immediately influences the foraminiferal community. It seems that A. tepida is better adapted to salinity fluctuations than H. germanica.
Kathrin Busch, Ulrike Hanz, Furu Mienis, Benjamin Mueller, Andre Franke, Emyr Martyn Roberts, Hans Tore Rapp, and Ute Hentschel
Biogeosciences, 17, 3471–3486, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-3471-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-3471-2020, 2020
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Seamounts are globally abundant submarine structures that offer great potential to study the impacts and interactions of environmental gradients at a single geographic location. In an exemplary way, we describe potential mechanisms by which a seamount can affect the structure of pelagic and benthic (sponge-)associated microbial communities. We conclude that the geology, physical oceanography, biogeochemistry, and microbiology of seamounts are even more closely linked than currently appreciated.
Alexander Bratek, Justus E. E. van
Beusekom, Andreas Neumann, Tina Sanders, Jana Friedrich, Kay-Christian Emeis, and Kirstin Dähnke
Biogeosciences, 17, 2839–2851, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-2839-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-2839-2020, 2020
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The following paper highlights the importance of benthic N-transformation rates in different sediment types in the southern North Sea as a source of fixed nitrogen for primary producers and also as a sink of fixed nitrogen. Sedimentary fluxes of dissolved inorganic nitrogen support ∼7 to 59 % of the average annual primary production. Semi-permeable and permeable sediments contribute ∼68 % of the total benthic N2 production rates, counteracting eutrophication in the southern North Sea.
Sabine Haalboom, David M. Price, Furu Mienis, Judith D. L. van Bleijswijk, Henko C. de Stigter, Harry J. Witte, Gert-Jan Reichart, and Gerard C. A. Duineveld
Biogeosciences, 17, 2499–2519, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-2499-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-2499-2020, 2020
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Mineral mining in deep-sea hydrothermal settings will lead to the formation of plumes of fine-grained, chemically reactive, suspended matter. Understanding how natural hydrothermal plumes evolve as they disperse from their source, and how they affect their surrounding environment, may help in characterising the behaviour of the diluted part of mining plumes. The natural plume provided a heterogeneous, geochemically enriched habitat conducive to the development of a distinct microbial ecology.
Noelle A. Held, Eric A. Webb, Matthew M. McIlvin, David A. Hutchins, Natalie R. Cohen, Dawn M. Moran, Korinna Kunde, Maeve C. Lohan, Claire Mahaffey, E. Malcolm S. Woodward, and Mak A. Saito
Biogeosciences, 17, 2537–2551, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-2537-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-2537-2020, 2020
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Trichodesmium is a globally important marine nitrogen fixer that stimulates primary production in the surface ocean. We surveyed metaproteomes of Trichodesmium populations across the North Atlantic and other oceans, and we found that they experience simultaneous phosphate and iron stress because of the biophysical limits of nutrient uptake. Importantly, nitrogenase was most abundant during co-stress, indicating the potential importance of this phenotype to global nitrogen and carbon cycling.
Helmke Hepach, Claire Hughes, Karen Hogg, Susannah Collings, and Rosie Chance
Biogeosciences, 17, 2453–2471, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-2453-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-2453-2020, 2020
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Tropospheric iodine takes part in numerous atmospheric chemical cycles, including tropospheric ozone destruction and aerosol formation. Due to its significance for atmospheric processes, it is crucial to constrain its sources and sinks. This paper aims at investigating and understanding features of biogenic iodate-to-iodide reduction in microalgal monocultures. We find that phytoplankton senescence may play a crucial role in the release of iodide to the marine environment.
Roger D. Finlay, Shahid Mahmood, Nicholas Rosenstock, Emile B. Bolou-Bi, Stephan J. Köhler, Zaenab Fahad, Anna Rosling, Håkan Wallander, Salim Belyazid, Kevin Bishop, and Bin Lian
Biogeosciences, 17, 1507–1533, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-1507-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-1507-2020, 2020
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Effects of biological activity on mineral weathering operate at scales ranging from short-term, microscopic interactions to global, evolutionary timescale processes. Microorganisms have had well-documented effects at large spatio-temporal scales, but to establish the quantitative significance of microscopic measurements for field-scale processes, higher-resolution studies of liquid chemistry at local weathering sites and improved upscaling to soil-scale dissolution rates are still required.
Christine Rooks, James Kar-Hei Fang, Pål Tore Mørkved, Rui Zhao, Hans Tore Rapp, Joana R. Xavier, and Friederike Hoffmann
Biogeosciences, 17, 1231–1245, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-1231-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-1231-2020, 2020
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Sponge grounds are known as nutrient sources, providing nitrate and ammonium to the ocean. We found that they also can do the opposite: in six species from Arctic and North Atlantic sponge grounds, we measured high rates of denitrification, which remove these nutrients from the sea. Rates were highest when the sponge tissue got low in oxygen, which happens when sponges stop pumping because of stress. Sponge grounds may become nutrient sinks when exposed to stress.
Cheng Li, Clare E. Reimers, and Yvan Alleau
Biogeosciences, 17, 597–607, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-597-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-597-2020, 2020
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Novel filamentous cable bacteria that grow in the top layer of intertidal mudflat sediment were attracted to electrodes poised at a positive electrical potential. Several diverse morphologies of Desulfobulbaceae filaments, cells, and colonies were observed on the electrode surface. These observations provide information to suggest conditions that will induce cable bacteria to perform electron donation to an electrode, informing future experiments that culture cable bacteria outside of sediment.
Marie Maßmig, Jan Lüdke, Gerd Krahmann, and Anja Engel
Biogeosciences, 17, 215–230, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-215-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-215-2020, 2020
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Little is known about the rates of bacterial element cycling in oxygen minimum zones (OMZs). We measured bacterial production and rates of extracellular hydrolytic enzymes at various in situ oxygen concentrations in the OMZ off Peru. Our field data show unhampered bacterial activity at low oxygen concentrations. Meanwhile bacterial degradation of organic matter substantially contributed to the formation of the OMZ.
Anna T. Kunert, Mira L. Pöhlker, Kai Tang, Carola S. Krevert, Carsten Wieder, Kai R. Speth, Linda E. Hanson, Cindy E. Morris, David G. Schmale III, Ulrich Pöschl, and Janine Fröhlich-Nowoisky
Biogeosciences, 16, 4647–4659, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-16-4647-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-16-4647-2019, 2019
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A screening of more than 100 strains from 65 different species revealed that the ice nucleation activity within the fungal genus Fusarium is more widespread than previously assumed. Filtration experiments suggest that the single cell-free Fusarium IN is smaller than 100 kDa (~ 6 nm) and that aggregates can be formed in solution. Exposure experiments, freeze–thaw cycles, and long-term storage tests demonstrate a high stability of Fusarium IN under atmospherically relevant conditions.
Qing Wang, Renbin Zhu, Yanling Zheng, Tao Bao, and Lijun Hou
Biogeosciences, 16, 4113–4128, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-16-4113-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-16-4113-2019, 2019
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We investigated abundance, potential activity, and diversity of soil ammonia-oxidizing archaea (AOA) and bacteria (AOB) in five Antarctic tundra patches, including penguin colony, seal colony, and tundra marsh. We have found (1) sea animal colonization increased AOB population size.; (2) AOB contributed to ammonia oxidation rates more than AOA in sea animal colonies; (3) community structures of AOB and AOA were closely related to soil biogeochemical processes associated with animal activities.
Yalda Vasebi, Marco E. Mechan Llontop, Regina Hanlon, David G. Schmale III, Russell Schnell, and Boris A. Vinatzer
Biogeosciences, 16, 1675–1683, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-16-1675-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-16-1675-2019, 2019
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Ice nucleation particles (INPs) help ice form at temperatures as high as −4 °C and contribute to the formation of precipitation. Leaf litter contains a high concentration of INPs, but the organisms that produce them are unknown. Here, we cultured two bacteria and one fungus from leaf litter that produce INPs similar to those found in leaf litter. This suggests that leaf litter may be an important habitat of these organisms and supports a role of these organisms as producers of atmospheric INPs.
Nimrod Wieler, Hanan Ginat, Osnat Gillor, and Roey Angel
Biogeosciences, 16, 1133–1145, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-16-1133-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-16-1133-2019, 2019
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In stony deserts, when rocks are exposed to atmospheric conditions, they undergo weathering. The cavernous (honeycomb) weathering pattern is one of the most common, but it is still unclear exactly how it is formed. We show that microorganisms, which differ from the surrounding soil and dust, form biological crusts on exposed rock surfaces. These microbes secrete polymeric substances that mitigate weathering by reducing evaporation rates and, consequently, salt transport rates through the rock.
Yang Li, Zhaojun Wu, Xingchen Dong, Zifu Xu, Qixin Zhang, Haiyan Su, Zhongjun Jia, and Qingye Sun
Biogeosciences, 16, 573–583, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-16-573-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-16-573-2019, 2019
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This paper contributes to the study of bacterial carbon sequestration in mine tailings. Previous studies focused on carbonate mineral precipitation, while the role of autotrophs in carbon sequestration has been neglected. Carbon sequestration in two mine tailings treated with FeS2 was analyzed using 13C isotope labeling, pyrosequencing, and DNA SIP to identify carbon fixers. This paper is the first to investigate carbon sequestration by autotrophic groups in mine tailings.
Dong-Hun Lee, Jung-Hyun Kim, Yung Mi Lee, Alina Stadnitskaia, Young Keun Jin, Helge Niemann, Young-Gyun Kim, and Kyung-Hoon Shin
Biogeosciences, 15, 7419–7433, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-15-7419-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-15-7419-2018, 2018
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In this study, we provide first evidence of lipid biomarker patterns and phylogenetic identities of key microbes mediating anaerobic oxidation of methane (AOM) communities in active mud volcanoes (MVs) on the continental slope of the Canadian Beaufort Sea. Our lipid and 16S rRNA results indicate that archaea of the ANME-2c and ANME-3 clades are involved in AOM in the MVs investigated.
Joshua F. Dean, Jurgen R. van Hal, A. Johannes Dolman, Rien Aerts, and James T. Weedon
Biogeosciences, 15, 7141–7154, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-15-7141-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-15-7141-2018, 2018
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Lakes, rivers, ponds and streams are significant contributors of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. This is partly due to the decomposition of plant and soil organic matter transported through these aquatic systems by microbial communities. In determining how vulnerable this organic material is to decomposition during aquatic transport, we show that standardized treatments in experiments can affect the way microbial communities behave and potentially the experimental outcome.
Xi Wen, Viktoria Unger, Gerald Jurasinski, Franziska Koebsch, Fabian Horn, Gregor Rehder, Torsten Sachs, Dominik Zak, Gunnar Lischeid, Klaus-Holger Knorr, Michael E. Böttcher, Matthias Winkel, Paul L. E. Bodelier, and Susanne Liebner
Biogeosciences, 15, 6519–6536, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-15-6519-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-15-6519-2018, 2018
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Rewetting drained peatlands may lead to prolonged emission of the greenhouse gas methane, but the underlying factors are not well described. In this study, we found two rewetted fens with known high methane fluxes had a high ratio of microbial methane producers to methane consumers and a low abundance of methane consumers compared to pristine wetlands. We therefore suggest abundances of methane-cycling microbes as potential indicators for prolonged high methane emissions in rewetted peatlands.
Kyle R. Frischkorn, Andreas Krupke, Cécile Guieu, Justine Louis, Mónica Rouco, Andrés E. Salazar Estrada, Benjamin A. S. Van Mooy, and Sonya T. Dyhrman
Biogeosciences, 15, 5761–5778, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-15-5761-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-15-5761-2018, 2018
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Trichodesmium is a keystone genus of marine cyanobacteria that is estimated to supply nearly half of the ocean’s fixed nitrogen, fuelling primary productivity and the cycling of carbon and nitrogen in the ocean. In our study we characterize Trichodesmium ecology across the western tropical South Pacific using gene and genome sequencing and geochemistry. We detected genes for phosphorus reduction, providing a mechanism for the noted importance of this organism in the ocean's phosphorus cycle.
Audrey Lallement, Ludovic Besaury, Elise Tixier, Martine Sancelme, Pierre Amato, Virginie Vinatier, Isabelle Canet, Olga V. Polyakova, Viatcheslay B. Artaev, Albert T. Lebedev, Laurent Deguillaume, Gilles Mailhot, and Anne-Marie Delort
Biogeosciences, 15, 5733–5744, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-15-5733-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-15-5733-2018, 2018
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The main objective of this work was to evaluate the potential degradation of phenol, a highly toxic pollutant, by cloud microorganisms. Phenol concentrations measured on five cloud samples collected at the PUY station in France were from 0.15 to 0.74 µg L−1. Metatranscriptomic analysis suggested that phenol could be biodegraded directly in clouds, likely by Gammaproteobacteria. A large screening showed that 93 % of 145 bacterial strains isolated from clouds were able to degrade phenol.
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