Biogeosciences
www.biogeosciences.net
1726-4170
1726-4189
4
5
2007
10.5194/bg-4-759-2007
http://www.biogeosciences.net/4/759/2007/
http://www.biogeosciences.net/4/759/2007/bg-4-759-2007.html
http://www.biogeosciences.net/4/759/2007/bg-4-759-2007.pdf
759
768
2007-09-14
An airborne regional carbon balance for Central Amazonia
J. Lloyd
j.lloyd@leeds.ac.uk
O. Kolle
H. Fritsch
S. R. de Freitas
M. A. F. Silva Dias
P. Artaxo
A. D. Nobre
A. C. de Araújo
B. Kruijt
L. Sogacheva
G. Fisch
A. Thielmann
U. Kuhn
M. O. Andreae
Earth and Biosphere Institute, School of Geography, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
Max-Planck-Institut für Biogeochemie, P.O. Box 100164, 07701 Jena, Germany
Departamento de Ciências Atmosféricas, Instituto de Astronomia Geofísica e Ciências Atmosféricas, Univ. de São Paulo, Rua do Matão, 1226, 05508-900, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
Centro de Previsão do Tempo e Estudos Climaticos, Inst. Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais, Rodovia Presidente Dutra, Km 40, SP-RJ, 12630-000, Cachoeira Paulista, SP, Brazil
Instituto de Física, Universidade de São Paulo, Rua do Matão, Travessa R, 187, Cidade Universitária, 05508-900, São Paulo,SP, Brazil
Wageningen Univ. and Res. Centre, P.O. Box 47, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands
Department of Physical Sciences, P.O. Box 64, 00014 University of Helsinki, Finland
Centro Técnico Aeroespacial (CTA), Praça Marechal Eduardo Gomes, 50, CEP 12228-904, São José dos Campos, SP, Brazil
Max-Planck-Institut für Chemie, P.O. Box 3060, 55020 Mainz, Germany
We obtained regional estimates of surface CO<sub>2</sub> exchange rates using
atmospheric boundary layer budgeting techniques above tropical forest near
Manaus, Brazil. Comparisons were made with simultaneous measurements from
two eddy covariance towers below. Although there was good agreement for
daytime measurements, large differences emerged for integrating periods
dominated by the night-time fluxes. These results suggest that a systematic
underestimation of night time respiratory effluxes may be responsible for
the high Amazonian carbon sink suggested by several previous eddy covariance
studies. Large CO<sub>2</sub> fluxes from riverine sources or high respiratory
losses from recently disturbed forests do not need to be invoked in order to
balance the carbon budget of the Amazon. Our results do not, however,
discount some contribution of these processes to the overall Amazon carbon
budget.
Andreae, M. O., Almeida, S. S., Artaxo, P., Branda, O. C, Carswell, F. E., Ciccioli, P., Culf, A., Esteves, J. L., Gash, J., Grace, J., Kabat, P., Lelieveld, J., Malhi, Y., Manzi, A. O., Meixner, F. X., Nobre, A. D., Nobre, C., Lourdes Ruivo, M. A., Silva-Dias, M. A., Stefani, P., Valentini, R., von Jouanne, J., and Waterloo, M.: Biogeochemical cycling of carbon, water, energy, trace gases and aerosols in Amazonia: The LBA-EUSTACH experiments, J. Geophys. Res., 107, 8066, doi:10.1029/2001JD000524, 2002.
Ara\'ujo, A. C., Nobre, A. D., Kruijt, B., Culf. A. D., Stefani, P., Elbers, J., Dallarosa, R., Randow, C., Manzi, A. O., Valentini, R., Gash, J. H. C., and Kabat, P.: Dual long-term tower study of carbon dioxide fluxes for a central Amazonian rainforest: The Manaus LBA site, J. Geophys. Res., 107(D20), 8090, doi:10.1029/2001JD000676, 2002.
Ara\'ujo, A. C., Kruijt, B., Nobre, A. D., Dolman, A. J., Waterloo, M. J., Moors, E. J., and De Souza, J.: Noctural accumulation of CO<sub>2</sub> underneath a tropical forest canopy along a topographical gradient, Ecol. Appl., in press, 2007.
Baker, T. R., Phillips, O. L., Malhi, Y., Almeida, S., Arroyo, L., Di Fiore, A., Killeen, T., Laurance, S. G., Laurance, W. F., Lewis, S. L., Lloyd, J., Monteagudo, A., Neill, D. A., Patiño, S., Pitman, N. C. A., Silva, N., and Vásquez Martínez, R.: Are Amazonian forest plots increasing in biomass?, Phil. Trans. Royal Soc. Lond. S, 359B, 353–365, 2004.
Carswell, F. E., Costa, A. L., Palheta, M., Malhi. Y., Meir, P. W., Costa, J. de P. R., Ruivo, M. de L., Leal, L. S. M., Costa, J. M. N., Clement, R. J., and Grace, J.: Seasonality in CO<sub>2</sub> and H<sub>2</sub>O flux at an eastern Amazonian rainforest, J. Geophys. Res., 107(D20), 8076, doi:10.1029/2000JD000284, 2002.
Chambers, J. Q., Tribuzy, E. S., Toledo, L. C., Crispim, B. F., Higuchi, N., Santos, J., Araujo, A. C., Kruijt, B., Nobre, A. D., and Trumbore, S. E.: Respiration From A tropical forest ecosystem: Partitioning of sources and low carbon use efficiency, Ecol. Appl., 14, S72–S88, 2004.
Chou, W. W., Wofsy, S. C., Harriss, R. C., Lin, J. C., Gerbig, C., and Sachse, G. W.: Net fluxes of CO<sub>2</sub> in Amazonia derived from aircraft observations, J. Geophys. Res., 107(D22), 4614, doi:10.1029/2001JD001295, 2002.
Cleugh, H. R., Raupach, M. R., Briggs, P. R., and Coppin, P. A.: Regional-Scale Heat and Water Vapour Fluxes in an Agricultural Landscape: An Evaluation of CBL Budget Methods at OASIS, Bound.-Lay. Meteorol., 110, 99–137, 2004.
Culf, A. D., Fisch, G., Malhi, Y., Costa, R. C., Nobre, A. D., Marques, A. D., Gash, J. H. C., and Grace, J.: Carbon dioxide measurements in the nocturnal boundary layer over Amazonian forest, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 3, 39–53, 1999.
Freitas, S. R., Dias, M. A. F. S., Dias, P. L. S., Longo, K. M., Artaxo, P., Andreae, M. O., and Fischer, H.: A convective kinematic trajectory technique for low resolution atmospheric models, J. Geophys. Res., 105, 24 375–24 386, 2000.
Goulden, M. L., Munger, J. W., Fan, S.-M., Daube, B. C., and Wofsy, S. C.: Measurements of carbon sequestration by long term eddy covariance. Methods and a critical evaluation of accuracy, Global Change Biol., 2, 169–182, 1996.
Goulden, M. L., Miller, S. D., and da Rocha, H. R.: Nocturnal cold air drainage and pooling in a tropical forest, J. Geophys. Res., 111(D8), D08S04, doi:10.1029/2005JD006037, 2006.
Grace, J., Lloyd, J., McIntyre, J., Miranda, A. C., Meir, P., Miranda, H. S., Nobre, C., Moncrie, J., Massheder, J., Malhi, Y., Wright, I., and Gash, J.: Carbon dioxide uptake by an undisturbed tropical rain forest in southwest Amazônia, 1992 to 1993, Science, 270, 778–780, 1995a.
Grace, J., Lloyd, J., McIntyre, J., Miranda, A. C., Meir, P., Miranda, H. S., Nobre, C. R., Moncrieff, J., Wright, I. R., and Gash, J. H. C.: Fluxes of carbon dioxide and water vapour over an undisturbed tropical forest in south-west Amazonia, Global Change Biol., 1, 1–12, 1995b.
Grace, J., Mali, Y., Lloyd, J., McIntyre, J., Miranda, A. C., Meir, P., and Miranda, H. S.: The use of eddy covariance to infer the net carbon dioxide uptake of Brazilian rain forest, Global Change Biol., 2, 209–217, 1996.
Kalnay, E., Kanamitsu, M., Kistler, R., Collins, W., Deaven, D., Gandin, L., Iredell, M., Saha, S., White, G., Woollen, J., Zhu, Y., Chelliah, M., Ebisuzaki, W., Higgins, W., Janowiak, J., Mo, K. C., Ropelewski, C., Wang, J., Leetmaa, A., Reynolds, R., Jenne, R., and Joseph, D.: The NCEP/NCAR 40-year reanalysis project, Bull. Am. Meteor. Soc., 77, 437–47, 1996.
Keller, M. and Crill, P.: Site Scouting and Selection for the Tapajós National Forest and Santarém/ Belterra, Pará. (unpublished report http://lba.cptec.inpe.br/lba/eng/research/santarem_report/santarem2.html, 2000.
Kruijt, B., Elbers J. A., von Randow, C., Ara\'ujo, A. C., Oliveira, P. J., Culf, A., Manzi, A. O., Nobre, A. D., Kabat, P., and Moors, E. J.: The robustness in eddy correlation fluxes for Amazon rainforest conditions, Ecol. Appl., 14, S101–S113, 2004.
Kruijt, B., Lloyd, J., Grace, J., McIntyre, J. A., Farquhar, G. D., Miranda, A. C., and McCracken, P.: Sources and sinks of CO<sub>2</sub> in Rondonia tropical rain forest, in: Amazonian Deforestation and Climate, Gash, J. H. C., Nobre, C. A., Roberts, J. M., and Victoria, R. L., Wiley. Chichester, 1996.
Laubach, J. and Fritsch, H.: Convective boundary layer budgets derived from aircraft data, Agr. Forest Meteorol., 111, 237–263, 2002.
Lloyd, J.: The CO<sub>2</sub> dependence of photosynthesis, plant growth responses to elevated CO<sub>2</sub> concentrations and their interactions with soil nutrient status II. Temperate and boreal forest productivity and the combined effects of increasing CO<sub>2</sub> concentrations and increased nitrogen deposition at a global scale, Functional Ecology, 13, 439–459, 1999.
Lloyd, J. and Farquhar, G. D.: The CO<sub>2</sub> dependence of photosynthesis, plant growth responses to elevated atmospheric CO2 concentrations and their interaction with plant nutrient status, Functional Ecology, 10, 4–32, 1996.
Lloyd, J., Kruijt, B., Hollinger, D. Y., Grace, J., Francey, R. J., Wong, S.-C., Kelliher, F. M., Miranda, A. C., Farquhar, G. D., Gash, J. H. C., Vygodskaya, N. N., Wright, I. R., Miranda, H. S., and Schulze, E.-D.: Vegetation effects on the isotopic composition of atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> as local and regional scales: Theoretical aspects and a comparison between rainforest in Amazonia and a boreal forest in Siberia, Aust. J. Plant Physiol., 23, 371–399, 1996.
Lloyd, J., Francey, R. J., Mollicone, D., Raupach, M. R., Sogochev, A., Arneth, A., Byers, J. N., Kelliher, F. M., Rebmann, C., Valentini, R., Wong, S.-C., Bauer, G., and Schulze, E.-D.: Vertical profiles, boundary layer budgets and regional flux estimates for CO$_2,$ its$^13$C/$^12$C$_ $ ratio and for water vapour above a forest/bog mosaic in central Siberia, Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 15, 267–284, 2001.
Lloyd, J., Langenfelds, R. L., Francey, R. L., Gloor, M., Tchebakova, N. M., Zolothukhine, D., Brand, W. A., Werner, R. A., Jordan, A., Allison, C. A., Zrazhewske, V., Shibistova, O., and Schulze, E.-D.: A trace gas climatology above Zotino, central Siberia, Tellus, 51B, 749–767, 2002.
Malhi, Y. and Grace, J.: Tropical forests and atmospheric carbon dioxide, Trends Ecol. Evol. 15, 332–337, 2000.
Malhi, Y., Nobre, A. D., Grace, J., Kruijt, B., Pereira, M. G. P., Culf, A., and Scott, S.: Carbon dioxide transfer over a Central Amazonian rain forest, J. Geophys. Res., 103, 31 593–31 612, 1998.
Miller, S. D., Goulden, M. L., Menton, M. C., Rocha, H. R., Freitas, H. C., Figueira, A. M. S., and Sousa, C. A. D.: Biometric and micrometorological measurements of tropical forest carbon balance, Ecol. Appl., 14, S114–S126. 2004.
Ometto, J. P. H. B., Nobre, A., Rocha, H. R., Artaxo, P., and Martinelli, L. A.: Amazonia and the modern carbon cycle: lessons learned, Oecologia, 143, 483–500, doi:10.1007/s00442-005-0034-3, 2005.
Phillips, O. L., Malhi, Y., Higuchi, N., Laurance, W. F., Nuñez V. P., Vásquez, M., R., Laurance, S. G., Ferriera, L. V., Stern, M., Brown, S., and Grace, J.: Changes in the carbon balance of tropical forest: evidence from long-term plots, Science, 282, 439–442, 1998.
Pielke, R. A. Cotton, W. R., Walko, R. L., Tremback, C. L., Lyons, W. A., Grasso, L. D., Nicholls, M. D., Moran, M. D., Wesley, D. A, Lee, T. A., and Copeland, J. H.: A comprehensive meteorological modeling system – RAMS, Meteorol. Atmos. Phys., 49, 69–91 ,1992.
Raupach, M. R., Denmead, O. T., and Dunix, F. X.: Challenges in linking atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> concentrations to fluxes at local and regional scales, Australian Journal of Botany, 40, 697–716, 1992.
Raupach, M. R. and Finnigan, J. J.: Scale issues in boundary-layer meteorology: surface energy balances in heterogeneous terrain, Hydrol. Processes, 9, 589–612, 1995.
Rice, A. H., Pyle, E. H., Saleska, S. R., Hutyra, L., Carmargo, P. B., Portilho, K., Marques, D. F., and Wofsy, S. F.: Carbon balance and vegetation dynamics in an old-growth Amazonian forest, Ecol. Appl., 14, 855–871, 2004.
Richey, J. E., Melack, J. M., Aufdenkampe, A. K., Ballester, V. M., and Hess, L. L.: Outgassing from Amazonian rivers and wetlands as a large tropical source of atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub>, Nature, 416, 617–620, 2002.
Roedenbeck, C., Howling, S., Gloor, M., and Heimann, M.: CO<sub>2</sub> flux history 1982-2001 inferred from atmospheric data using a global inversion of atmospheric transport, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 3, 1914–1964, 2003.
Saleska S. R., Miller, S. D., Matross, D. M., Goulden, M. L., Wofsy, S. C., da Roacha, H. R., de Camargo, P. B., Crill, P., Daube, B. C., de Freitas, H. C., Hutyra, L., Keller, M., Kircho, V., Menton, M., Munger, J. W., Pyle, E. H., Rice, A. H., and Silva, H.: Carbon in Amazon forests: Unexpected seasonal fluxes and disturbance-induced losses, Science, 302, 1554–1557, 2003.
Simon, E., Lehmann, B. E., Ammann, C., Ganzeveld, L., Rummel, U., Meixner, F.X., Nobre, A. D., Ara\'ujo, A., and Kesselmeier, J.: Lagrangian dispersion of $^222$Rn, H20 and CO<sub>2</sub> within Amazonian rain forest, Agr. Forest Meteorol., 132, 286–304, 2005.
Tian, H., Melillo, J. M., Kicklighter, D. W., McGuire, A. D., Helfrich III, J., Moore III, B., and Vorosmarty, C. J.: Climatic and biotic controls on annual carbon storage in Amazonian ecosystems, Global Ecol Biogeogr., 9, 315–335, 2000.
Wofsy, S. C., Harris, R. C., and Kaplan, W. A.: Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere over the Amazon Basin, J. Geophys. Res., 93, 1377–1387, 1988.